Table of Contents

Preface

Contributors

Acronyms and Abbreviations

PART I SWIR TECHNIQUES

1 Optical Properties of Tissues Using SWIR Light

Francisco J. Salgado-Remacha, Sebastián Jarabo, and Ana Sánchez-Cano

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Optical Properties of Major Tissue Components

      1.2.1 SWIR light sources and detectors

1.3 Novel SWIR Supercontinuum Source

1.4 Effective Filtering of Scattered Light

      1.4.1 Experimental setup for direct light measurement

      1.4.2 Theory

      1.4.3 Comparison of both experimental methods for assessment of the attenuation coefficient in a scattering media       phantom

1.5 Spectral Attenuation Measurements of Brain and Retinal Tissues in the SWIR Region: Experiment I

      1.5.1 Materials and methods

      1.5.2 Results and discussion

      1.5.3 Conclusions from experiment I

1.6 Measurement of Optical Properties of ex vivo Brain Tissues in the SWIR Range: Experiment II

      1.6.1 Theory

      1.6.2 Experimental procedure

      1.6.3 Results and discussion

      1.6.4 Comparison with the literature and final remarks

1.7 Conclusion

References

2 Luminescence Nanothermometry and Photothermal Conversion Efficiency for Particles Operating in the SWIR Region

Albenc Nexha, Joan Josep Carvajal, and Maria Cinta Pujol

2.1 Light–Matter Interactions

2.2 Luminescence Nanothermometry in the SWIR Region

      2.2.1 QD-based luminescent nanothermometers

      2.2.2 TM-based luminescent nanothermometers

      2.2.3 Lanthanide-based luminescent nanothermometers

2.3 Photothermal Conversion Agents

      2.3.1 Self-assessed ex vivo photothermal conversion agents

2.4 Concluding Remarks

References

3 SWIR Properties of Rare-Earth-Doped Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications

Yang Sheng, Zhenghuan Zhao, and Mei Chee Tan

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Design and Synthesis of Rare-Earth-Doped Nanoparticles (REDNs)

      3.2.1 Materials selection for host and dopants

      3.2.2 Core/shell structure

      3.2.3 Synthesis methods

3.3 Upconversion and SWIR for Biomedical Photoluminescence Imaging

      3.3.1 Upconversion photoluminescence imaging

      3.3.2 SWIR imaging

3.4 Photoacoustic Imaging

3.5 Multifunctional Platforms Based on SWIR-Emitting REDNs

      3.5.1 REDN-based multimodal imaging

      3.5.2 REDN-based theranostic platforms

3.6 Toxicity

3.7 Summary and Perspectives

References

4 Short-Wave Infrared Meso-Patterned Imaging for Quantitative and Label-Free Tissue Characterization

Yanyu Zhao, Anahita Pilvar, Mark C. Pierce, and Darren Roblyer

4.1 Introduction to SWIR-Meso-Patterned Imaging

4.2 The Unique Capabilities of SWIR Light for Quantifying Water and Lipid Content in Tissue

4.3 SWIR-MPI Instrumentation

4.4 Advantages of SWIR-MPI in Probing Depth and Spatial Resolution

4.5 Examples of Potential Biomedical Applications for SWIR-MPI

4.6 Future Directions

References

5 Short-Wavelength Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging for Biomedical Applications

Lise Lyngsnes Randeberg, Julio Hernández, and Emilio Catelli

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Medical Hyperspectral Imaging

5.3 Hyperspectral Instrumentation and Setup

5.4 Hyperspectral Data Collection

5.5 Hyperspectral Data Analysis

5.6 Data Analysis and Simulations

5.7 Chemometric Tools and Methods from Spectroscopy

      5.7.1 Spectral preprocessing

      5.7.2 Unsupervised methods

      5.7.3 Supervised method: regression

5.8 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence

References

6 VIS–SWIR Wideband Lens-Free Microscopic Imaging

Ziduo Lin, Abdulkadir Yurt, Geert Vanmeerbeeck, Murali Jayapala, Zhenxiang Luo, Jiwon Lee, Joo Hyoung Kim, Vladimir Pejovic, Epimitheas Georgitzikis, Pawel Malinowski, and Andy Lambrechts

6.1 Introduction

6.2 System Development and Evaluation

      6.2.1 System development

      6.2.2 Quantum dot sensor/dd>

      6.2.3 System performance evaluation

6.3 Applications

      6.3.1 Silicon inspection and measurement

      6.3.2 Cell and tissue imaging

      6.3.3 Wide-range multispectral LFI

6.4 Future Prospects

References

PART II APPLICATIONS: CANCERS

7 SWIR Fluorescence and Monte Carlo Modeling of Tissues for Medical Applications

Tatsuto Iida, Shunsuke Kiya, Kosuke Kubota, Akitoshi Seiyama, Takashi Jin, and Yasutomo Nomura

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Monte Carlo Models in Multilayered Media (MCML)

      7.2.1 Calculation routine

      7.2.2 SWIR photon migration

7.3 Fluorescence Monte Carlo Simulation

      7.3.1 Point source of fluorescence MCML for cerebral angiography

      7.3.2 Spherical source of fluorescence MCML for breast cancer

7.4 SWIR Fluorescence Monte Carlo Model in Voxelized Media (MCVM) for Breast Cancer

      7.4.1 The breast model

      7.4.2 Image processing and implementation of the model

      7.4.3 Excitation gradient

      7.4.4 Setting optical parameters that reflect duct morphology

      7.4.5 SWIR for detection of small breast cancer in deep tissue

7.5 Conclusions and Perspectives

References

8 Multimodal SWIR Laser Imaging for Assessment and Detection of Urothelial Carcinomas

Gustavo Castro-Olvera, Simone Morselli, Mauro Gacci, Sergio Serni, and Pablo Loza-Alvarez

8.1 Introduction

      8.1.1 Epidemiology

      8.1.2 Aetiology

      8.1.3 Histopathology and staging

      8.1.4 Clinical presentation

      8.1.5 Diagnosis

      8.1.6 Treatment

      8.1.7 Diagnostic needs in clinical practice

8.2 Role of Multimodal SWIR Laser Imaging

      8.2.1 SWIR

      8.2.2 Multimodal microscopy

      8.2.3 Nonlinear optics for microscopy

      8.2.4 Two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF)

      8.2.5 Second-harmonic generation (SHG)

      8.2.6 Third-harmonic generation (THG)

8.3 SWIR Optical Windows

      8.3.1 First biological window

      8.3.2 Second and third biological windows

8.4 Damage and Image Optical Thresholds

8.5 Conclusion

References

9 SWIR Fluorescence Endoscopy for Tumor Imaging

Yongkuan Suo, Hongguang Liu, and Zhen Cheng

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Endoscopic Imaging

9.3 SWIR Fluorescence Endoscopic Imaging

References

10 Short-Wavelength Infrared Hyperspectral Imaging to Assess Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors during Surgery

Toshihiro Takamatsu, Hiroaki Ikematsu, Hiroshi Takemura, Hideo Yokota, and Kohei Soga

10.1 Short-Wavelength Infrared Imaging

10.2 Hyperspectral Imaging

10.3 Data Processing Methods for Hyperspectral Imaging

10.4 Distinction of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors by SWIR-HSI

10.5 Wavelength Band Reduction Method for Hyperspectral Data

10.6 Development of SWIR-HSI Devices for Clinical Applications

10.7 Summary

References

PART III APPLICATIONS: DISEASES OF THE HEART, BRAIN, SKIN, AND OTHER ORGANS

11 SWIR for the Assessment of Heart Failure

Aaron G. Smith, Shona Stewart, Marlena B. Darr, Robert C. Schweitzer, Matthew Nelson, Patrick J. Treado, and J. Christopher Post

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Current Methods of Heart Failure Patient Assessment

11.3 Molecular Chemical Imaging

11.4 Application of SWIR-MCI to Heart Failure Space

11.5 SWIR Clinical Studies Results

      11.5.1 Introduction and clinical perspective

      11.5.2 Methods and results

11.6 Discussion

11.7 Future Directions

References

12 Transparent Polycrystalline Ceramic Cranial Implant with Photonic Functionality in the SWIR

Santiago Camacho-López, Nami Davoodzadeh, David L. Halaney, Juan A. Hernández-Cordero, Guillermo Aguilar, Gabriel R. Castillo, Antonio Cisneros- Martínez, Beatriz Coyotl-Ocelotl, Roger Chiu, Julio C. Ramírez-San-Juan, and Rubén Ramos-García

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Theranostic Cranial Implant for Hyperspectral Light Delivery and Microcirculation Imaging without Scalp Removal

      12.2.1 Ex vivo proof of concept: optical transmittance measurements

      12.2.2 In vivo demonstration of optical access for LSI of brain microvasculature

12.3 Femtosecond Laser-Written Waveguides in nc-YSZ for WttB in the SWIR

      12.3.1 Waveguide writing

      12.3.2 Depressed cladding waveguides: discrete versus continuous

      12.3.3 Characterization of waveguides for SWIR

12.4 Imaging through Highly Scattering Media

      12.4.1 Laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI)

      12.4.2 Wavefront shaping: focusing light through a ceramic cranial implant

      12.4.3 Single-pixel imaging (SPI)

      12.4.4 Lensless camera

12.5 Optical Fiber Probes for Diagnostics and Therapeutics

      12.5.1 Fiber-optic temperature sensors

      12.5.2 Fiber-optic polymer microbubble sensors for temperature and deformation

      12.5.3 Photothermal probes

12.6 Conclusion

References

13 SWIR Hyperspectral Imaging to Assess Neurocognitive Disorders Using Blood Plasma Samples

Raquel Leon, Abian Hernandez, Himar Fabelo, Samuel Ortega, Francisco Balea-Fernández, and Gustavo M. Callico

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Materials and Methods for Generating a Hyperspectral SWIR Blood Plasma Database

      13.2.1 Blood plasma sample preparation and HS SWIR setup for data acquisition

      13.2.2 HS image preprocessing

      13.2.3 Blood plasma HS dataset partition

      13.2.4 Statistical preprocessing approach

13.3 Processing Framework of HS SWIR Blood Plasma Samples

      13.3.1 Machine learning approach

      13.3.2 Deep learning approach

      13.3.3 Evaluation metrics

13.4 Experimental Results and Discussion

      13.4.1 Validation classification results

      13.4.2 Test classification results

      13.4.3 Limitations

13.5 Conclusions

References

14 Hyperspectral SWIR Imaging of Skin Inflammation

Leonid Shmuylovich and Mikhail Y. Berezin

14.1 Introduction

      14.1.1 Contact dermatitis as a model inflammatory skin disease

      14.1.2 Skin imaging landscape

14.2 Extending Beyond the Visible and Near-Infrared to the SWIR

14.3 SWIR Hyperspectral Imaging of Allergic Contact Dermatitis

      14.3.1 HSI hardware and software for image analysis

      14.3.2 Applying SWIR-HSI and IDCube analysis to ACD

      14.3.3 Evidence of pigmentation-independent imaging in the SWIR spectral range

      14.3.4 Designing SWIR multispectral imaging from hyperspectral data

14.4 Conclusions

References

15 Use of a SWIR Otoscope in the Assessment of Pediatric and Other Conditions

Nirvikalpa Natarajan, Yu-Jin Lee, and Tulio A. Valdez

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Middle Ear Anatomyg

15.3 Pathophysiology of Middle Ear Infections

15.4 Diagnosis: Current Modalities and Challenges

15.5 SWIR

15.6 Preclinical Studies: Optical Properties of the Human Tympanic Membrane

15.7 Preclinical Studies to Evaluate SWIR Imaging

      15.7.1 Ex vivo analysis of human tympanic fluid

      15.7.2 Analysis of a middle ear fluid phantom in a middle ear model

15.8 Fluorescence Chemical Sensors in Conjunction with SWIR Imaging Tools for Detecting Otitis Media in a Murine Model

15.9 SWIR Otoscope Design

15.10 Clinical Studies

      15.10.1 SWIR imaging of human middle ear anatomy in adults

      15.10.2 SWIR otoscopy in a pediatric population

15.11 Conclusion

References

16 Use of an OCT System in the Short-Wavelength Infrared Region: Applications

Pauline John, Vani Damodaran, and Nilesh J. Vasa

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)

      16.2.1 Basic principles of the OCT technique

      16.2.2 Different types of OCT systems

16.3 Application I: SWIR OCT for Dental Imaging

      16.3.1 Dental caries

      16.3.2 Imaging of dental caries

      16.3.3 Restoration and secondary caries

16.4 Application II: SWIR OCT for Glucose Monitoring in the Anterior Chamber of the Human Eye

      16.4.1 Diabetes

      16.4.2 Glucose monitoring techniques

      16.4.3 Glucose monitoring using a supercontinuum laser source in the anterior chamber of a human eye model

16.5 Conclusion

References

17 SWIR Imaging of Lesions on Tooth Surfaces

Daniel Fried

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Optical Properties of Dental Hard Tissues and Lesion Contrast at SWIR Wavelengths

17.3 Detection of Caries Lesions on Proximal and Occlusal Surfaces

17.4 Detection of Caries Lesions and Dental Calculus on Root Surfaces

17.5 Detection of Secondary Caries

17.6 Characterization of Developmental Defects

17.7 Imaging Cracks in Teeth

17.8 Assessment of Lesion Activity

17.9 Summary

References

PART IV ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

18 Advances in SWIR Deep Tissue Imaging Using Machine Learning

Laura A. Sordillo and Diana C. Sordillo

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Short-Wavelength Infrared (SWIR)

18.3 Deep Learning Models

      18.3.1 Overview of deep learning

      18.3.2 Popular DL models in biophotonics

18.4 Machine Learning Techniques, SWIR, and Disease

      18.4.1 Machine learning and biophotonics

      18.4.2 Machine learning and SWIR

18.5 Conclusion

References

Index

Preface

One of the most exciting, recent developments in photonics, particularly in regards to its use in medicine and disease, is the utilization of light at wavelengths beyond the visible range and the slightly longer range of short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) wavelengths at 1100–1350 nm, now known as the second optical window. Once ignored because of a lack of sensitive detectors, a third (at 1600–1870 nm) and fourth (at 2100–2350 nm) optical window are now being utilized extensively. These wavelengths are situated at areas between water peak maxima (where absorption of light is reduced). Due to minimal absorption and scattering of light at these wavelengths, the use of these SWIR optical windows can provide less blurring, better-contrast images, and much deeper penetration into tissue media compared with visible light.

With the use of these windows, extensive progress has been made in the study of diseases such as cancer, heart failure, neurocognitive disorders, and diseases of the bone, eyes, skin, and teeth. In Part I of this book, investigators review new and emerging techniques based on SWIR light, including the fabrication and use of SWIR nanoparticles as luminescent nanothermometers and photothermal agents, and recent advances in the design, structure, and SWIR-related biomedical applications of rare-earth doped nanoparticles (REDNs). REDNs are among the most exceptionally bright and biocompatible SWIR emitters. SWIR imaging techniques—including SWIR hyperspectral imaging for biomedical applications, and a novel wideband (VIS+SWIR) digital holographic microscopic method, based on a novel quantum-dot (QD) image sensor—are also discussed.

In Part II of this book, we explore biomedical applications that employ the SWIR optical windows for the assessment and detection of cancer. SWIR fluorescence and Monte Carlo modeling of breast cancer tissues can reveal important information on how SWIR light interacts with complex media. Recent advances in the study of urothelial carcinoma, a cancer that recurs frequently, are reviewed. SWIR light with multimodal microscopy can be utilized as a minimally invasive diagnostic technique for evaluation of this cancer. Investigators also show how SWIR light can be coupled with fluorescence endoscopy for tumor imaging, and how the assessment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors during surgery can be made using SWIR hyperspectral imaging.

In Part III of this book, we discuss biomedical applications of SWIR light in important diseases of the heart, brain, skin, and other organs. SWIR light can be utilized in the assessment of heart failure and to access difficult-to-reach areas of the brain. Investigators use SWIR imaging techniques to evaluate neurocognitive disorders and skin inflammation. SWIR light can also be employed using an otoscope to assess pediatric conditions, and with optical coherence tomography and other imaging modalities in dentistry.

Finally, Part IV provides a discussion of how artificial intelligence and machine learning can greatly enhance our ability to use SWIR windows to detect and study disease.

Laura A. Sordillo, M.S., M.Phil., Ph.D.
Peter P. Sordillo, M.D., Ph.D., M.S.
Editors
December 2021