This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9821, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and Conference Committee listing.

The first demonstration of laser cooling of solids was of an ytterbium doped fluorozirconate glass. While this groundbreaking work successfully showed that it is possible to cool solids using laser cooling, rare-earth materials are governed by Boltzmann statistics limiting their cooling ability to about 100 K. Direct-bandgap semiconductors, on the other hand, are governed by Fermi-Dirac statistics, which allows for a theoretical cooling limit of 10 K as well as higher cooling efficiencies. Recently, it was demonstrated that it is possible to cool CdS nanoribbons by 40 K. That success was attributed to CdS strong electron-phonon coupling, which makes it possible to resonantly annihilate more than one longitudinal optical phonon during each up conversion cycle. To further increase the cooling power, large external quantum efficiency is required. A nanostructure is preferred because it creates confined excitons of tunable wavelength and reduces the self-absorption of the anti-Stokes fluorescence owing to the shorter path length for photons to escape the crystal. However, organically passivated quantum dots have a low quantum yield due to surface related trap states. A core-shell nanostructure alleviates this problem by passivating the surface trap states and protecting against environmental changes and photo-oxidative degradation. As such, we chose to investigate CdSe/ZnS core shell structure for laser cooling applications. This article highlights the measurement of the anti-Stokes luminescence, the dependence of the laser wavelength on the anti-Stokes emission of colloidal quantum dots, and the successful incorporation of CdSe/ZnS into polymers.

We present a study of cooling enhancement in optical refrigerators by the implementation of advanced non-resonant optical cavities. Cavity designs have been studied to maximize pump light-trapping to improve absorption and thereby increase the efficiency of optical refrigeration. The approaches of non-resonant optical cavities by Herriott-cell and totalinternal- reflection were studied. Ray-tracing simulations and experiments were performed to analyze and optimize the different light-trapping configurations. Light trapping was studied for laser sources with high quality beams and for beams with large divergences, roughly corresponding to the output from fiber lasers and from diode lasers, respectively. We present a trade-off analysis between performance, reliability, and manufacturability.

In this proceedings article, we summarize our recent results on the feasibility studies made on Raman oscillation, frequency upconversion, and Raman amplification which are achievable in a second-order nonlinear medium at the phonon-polariton resonance. By beating two optical fields, a second-order nonlinear polarization is generated inside the medium. Such a polarization induces a spatially-uniform non-propagating electric field at the beat frequency, which in turn mixes with the input optical field at the lower frequency to generate or amplify the anti-Stokes optical field. Raman oscillation can be efficiently reached for the co-propagating configuration. In comparison, efficient frequency upconversion and large amplifications can be achieved for the counter-propagating configuration. These Raman processes can be used to effectively remove transverse-optical phonons before decaying to lower-frequency phonons, perhaps reach thresholds for laser cooling, and significantly enhance coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. The counter-propagating configuration offers advantages for amplifying extremely weak signals, efficient phonon removal, and laser cooling.

Since the 1970s, Raytheon has developed, built, tested and integrated high performance cryocoolers. Our versatile designs for single and multi-stage cryocoolers provide reliable operation for temperatures from 10 to 200 Kelvin with power levels ranging from 50 W to nearly 600 W. These cryocoolers incorporate clearance seals, flexure suspensions, hermetic housings and dynamic balancing to provide long service life and reliable operation in all relevant environments. Recently, Raytheon has developed an advanced regenerator technology capable of operating efficiently at high frequencies and outperforming traditional screen regenerators. The Raytheon Advanced Miniature (RAM-100) cryocooler, a flight packaged, high frequency, single stage pulse tube cooler with an integrated surge volume and inertance tube, has been designed for use with this regenerator. Design details and experimentally measured performance of two iterations of the RAM cryocooler are presented in this paper.

The low-frequency pulse-tube cryocooler has been a workhorse for large heat lift applications. However, the highfrequency pulse tube has to date not seen the widespread use in tactical infrared applications that Stirling cryocoolers have had, despite significant advantages in terms of exported vibrations and lifetime. Thales Cryogenics has produced large series of high-frequency pulse-tube cryocoolers for non-infrared applications since 2005. However, the use of Thales pulse-tube cryocoolers for infrared sensing has to date largely been limited to high-end space applications. In this paper, the performances of existing available off-the-shelf pulse-tube cryocoolers are examined versus typical tactical infrared requirements. A comparison is made on efficiency, power density, reliability, and cost. An outlook is given on future developments that could bring the pulse-tube into the mainstream for tactical infrared applications.

Early rotary cryocoolers were designed for the lifetime of a few thousands operating hours. Ricor K506 model’s life expectancy was only 5,000 hours, then the next generation K508 model was designed to achieve 10,000 operating hours in basic conditions, while the modern K508N was designed for 20,000 operating hours. Nowadays, the new challenges in the field of rotary cryocoolers require development of a new generation cooler that could compete with the linear cryocooler reliability, achieving the lifetime goal of 30,000 operating hours, and even more. Such new advanced cryocooler can be used for upgrade existing systems, or to serve the new generation of high-temperature detectors that are currently under development, enabling the cryocooler to work more efficiently in the field. The improvement of the rotary cryocooler reliability is based on a deep analysis and understating of the root failure causes, finding solutions to reduce bearings wear, using modern materials and lubricants. All of those were taken into consideration during the development of the new generation rotary coolers. As a part of reliability challenges, new digital controller was also developed, which allows new options, such as discrete control of the operating frequency, and can extend the cooler operating hours due to new controlling technique. In addition, the digital controller will be able to collect data during cryocooler operation, aiming end of life prediction.

In the infrared system, cooling down the optic components' temperature is a better choice to decrease the background radiation and maximize the sensitivity. This paper presented a 100K cryogenic optical system, for which an integrated designation of mechanical cooler, flexible thermal link and optical bench was developed. The whole infrared optic components which were assembled in a vacuum box were cooled down to 100K by two mechanical coolers. Low thermal conductivity supports and low emissivity multi-layers were used to reduce the cryogenic optical system's heat loss. The experiment results showed that in about eight hours, the temperature of the optical components reached 100K from room temperature, and the vibration from the mechanical coolers nearly have no affection to the imaging process by using of thermal links. Some experimental results of this cryogenic system will be discussed in this paper.

Sumitomo Heavy Industries, ltd. (SHI) has been developing cooler and Dewar technology for space application with Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. SHI has four types of coolers to cover temperature range from 1.7K to 80K or more. Those are Single stage Stirling coolers for 80K, two-stage Stirling coolers for 20K, 4K-class cooler and 1K-class cooler. 4K and 1K class coolers consist of a Joule-Thomson cooler and a two-stage Stirling as a pre-cooler. SHI also provided Dewars. In this paper, SHI’s cooler and Dewar technology are described.

The cryogenic system for the atmospheric vertical interferometric detector on FY-4 satellite includes a Stirling cryocooler, a radiant cooler, a cryogenic heat pipe and some flexible thermal links as well. These cryogenic elements were integrated together in order to decrease the background radiation and maximize the sensitivity with high efficiency and high reliability. This paper summarizes the cryogenic integration design, technical challenges, and the results of thermal and performance testing.

Low size, weight, power and price split Stirling linear cryocooler usually comprises electro-dynamically driven compressor and pneumatically driven expander which are side-by-side fixedly mounted upon the common frame and interconnected by the configurable transfer line. Vibration export produced by such a cryocooler comprises of a pair of tonal forces, the frequency of which essentially equals fixed driving frequency. In vibration sensitive applications, this may result in excessive angular line of sight jitter and translational defocusing affecting the image quality. The authors present Multimodal Tuned Dynamic Absorber, having one translational and two tilting modes essentially tuned to the driving frequency. Dynamic analysis shows that the dynamic reactions (force and moment) produced by such a dynamic absorber are capable of simultaneous attenuation of translational and tilting components of cryocooler induced vibration. The authors reveal the preferable design, the method of fine tuning and outcomes of numerical simulation on attainable performance.

Tuned dynamic absorbers (TDA) find use, in particular, for attenuating tonal vibration export produced by the moving components of cryogenic cooler. For the best performance, the resonant frequency of TDA needs to be essentially equal the driving frequency; accurate frequency match is favorably achieved by minimizing the cooler induced vibration by adjusting the driving frequency. For the best performance, the design of TDA needs to ensure minimum damping ratio; this is achievable by using planar flexural bearings having zero friction anchoring features. Accurate evaluation of effective mass, damping ratio and frequency is needed for TDA characterization during development and manufacturing. This data may be also important for the dynamic modelling. The authors are exploring the express method requiring no physical access to the proof mass of TDA. In this approach, the TDA is mounted upon the low frequency vibration mounted rod, the dynamic properties of TDA are then evaluated using the frequency response function – local accelerance – captured on the above rod using accelerometer, instrumented modal hammer and dual-channel signal analyzer. The authors are presenting the TDA design, outcomes of full-scale experimentation on dynamic properties evaluation and attained performance.

Thermoelectric (Peltier) coolers have historically not been used for cooling to temperatures much below 200 K, because of limitations with existing thermoelectric materials. There are many advantages to solid-state coolers: they have no moving parts, are compact, vibration-free, inherently durable, and scalable to low power levels. A significant drawback is their low coefficient of performance. The figure of merit, zT, is the materials characteristic that sets this efficiency in Peltier coolers. The zT decreases rapidly with temperature, roughly following a T^7/2 law. However, new material developments have taken place in the last decade that have made it possible to reach zT>0.5 down to 50 K. Many new ideas have also been put forward that enable better ZT’s and lower temperatures. This article reviews the difficulties associated with Peltier cooling at cryogenic temperatures, as an introduction to the following presentations and proceeding entries that will present solutions that have been developed since 2010.

The thermoelectric properties of YbCu₂Ge₂ at low temperature are unremarkable, however it has been found to be an intermediate valence compound. Previous work has shown that manipulation of valence in such compounds by chemical pressure can have dramatic effects on the value of the Seebeck coefficient. YbCu₂Ge₂ has been found to exist in a nearly divalent, Yb²⁺, state at room temperature, which if increased towards 2.5 has the promise of increasing the Seebeck coefficient substantially. In this study a full solid solution of YbCu₂Ge₂ and YbNi₂Ge₂ was created to exert a chemical pressure on the Yb and shift the valence away from the nominally divalent. A dramatic increase in the Seebeck coefficient was found as well as a substantial decrease in the thermal conductivity. These effects resulted in a substantial increase in ZT at low temperature and further emphasized the applicability and large effect that valence manipulation can have on intermediate valence compounds.

This article reviews the factors limiting the figure of merit zT of conventional thermoelectrics especially at cryogenic temperatures and then highlights modern approaches used to increase zT below 200 K. Two type of materials are discussed. The first are BiSb alloys, relatively conventional thermoelectrics in which the zT is enhanced by using resonant levels. The second is the spin- Seebeck effect (SSE), a new solid-state energy conversion technology. Classical thermoelectric and SSE physics are combined to provide new concepts, like magnon-drag, in which we hope to increase the performance of solid-state coolers by exploiting the spin degree of freedom.

Traditional thermoelectric cooling relies on the Peltier effect which produces a temperature drop limited by the figure of merit, zT. This cooling limit is not required from classical thermodynamics but can be traced to problems of thermoelectric compatibility. Alternatively, if a thermoelectric cooler can be designed to achieve full thermoelectric compatibility, lower temperature can be achieved even if the zT is low. In such a device the Thomson effect plays an important role. We present the theoretical concept of a “Thomson cooler,” for cryogenic cooling which is designed to maintain thermoelectric compatibility and we derive the requirements for the Seebeck coefficient.

Transverse Peltier coolers have been experimentally and theoretically studied since 1960s due to their capability of achieving cooling in a single-leg geometry. Recently proposed pxn-type transverse thermoelectrics reveal the possibility of intrinsic or undoped transverse coolers that can, in principle, function at cryogenic temperatures, which has drawn more attention to the performance of such transverse coolers. However, unlike longitudinal thermoelectrics, the equations for transverse thermoelectrics cannot be solved analytically. In this study, we therefore calculate the thermoelectric transport in transverse coolers numerically, and introduce a normalized notation, which reduces the independent parameters in the governing equations to a normalized electric field E* and a hot-side transverse figure of merit zT_h, only. A numerical study of the maximum cooling temperature difference and cooling power reveals the superior performance of transverse thermoelectric coolers compared to longitudinal coolers with the same figure of merit, providing another motivation in the search for new transverse thermoelectric materials with large figure of merit.

The world growth in research and development of High Operating Temperature (HOT) IR detectors impels the development and optimization of suitable cryocoolers. The current developments at RICOR, which include three different cryocooler models and two new controllers, are focused on the - oriented design process, meaning small Size, low Weight, low Power consumption, improved performance and lower production cost, providing proper cryocoolers for future hand held thermal imagers. This paper shows the progress made during development of “HOT” cryocooler prototypes, engineering pre-production series and qualified production series cryocoolers working at the FPA temperature range of 130 - 200K. The progress with development of electronic control modules providing minimized regulated power consumption is also shown. The progress in development of cryocoolers reliability is also reported in the paper.

A high pressure ratio DC compressor is a critical component for many cryocooler cycles. Prior research has focused on the adaptation of commercial compressor technology (scroll, screw, linear with rectification valves, and regenerative) for use in cryogenic applications where long-life and oil-free (i.e., volatile contamination free) are unique requirements. In addition, many cryocooler applications are for cooling imaging instruments making low vibration an additional requirement. Another candidate compressor technology has emerged from the fuel cell industry. Proton Exchange Membranes (PEMs) are used in fuel cells to separate reactants and transport protons, and these capabilities may be used in cryocoolers to compress hydrogen from low to high pressure. A particular type of PEM utilizing an anhydrous membrane forms the basis of a solid-state cryocooler. Creare has been investigating the use of PEM compressors for low temperature Joule-Thomson and dilution cryocoolers. These cryocoolers have no moving parts, can operate at temperatures down to nominally 23 K, produce no vibration, and are low cost. Our work on the cycle optimization, cryocooler design, and development and demonstration of the compressor technology is the subject of this paper.

During the 2015 SPIE-DSS conference, Thales Cryogenics presented new miniature cryocoolers for high operating temperatures. In this paper, an update is given regarding the qualification programme performed on these new products. Integration aspects are discussed, including an in-depth examination of the influence of the dewar cold finger on sizing and performance of the cryocooler. The UP8197 will be placed in the reference frame of the Thales product range of high-reliability linear cryocoolers, while the rotary solution will be considered as the most compact solution in the Thales portfolio. Compatibility of the cryocoolers design with new and existing 1/4” dewar designs is examined, and potential future developments are presented.

Cryogenic refrigerators represent a significant enabling technology for Earth and Space science enterprises. Many of the space instruments require cryogenic refrigeration to enable the use of advanced detectors to explore a wide range of phenomena from space. RICOR refrigerators involved in various space missions are overviewed in this paper, starting in 1994 with “Clementine” Moon mission, till the latest ExoMars mission launched in 2016. RICOR tactical rotary refrigerators have been incorporated in many space instruments, after passing qualification, life time, thermal management testing and flight acceptance. The tactical to space customization framework includes an extensive characterization and qualification test program to validate reliability, the design of thermal interfacing with a detector, vibration export control, efficient heat dissipation in a vacuum environment, robustness, mounting design, compliance with outgassing requirements and strict performance screening. Current RICOR development is focused on dedicated ultra-long-life, highly reliable, space cryogenic refrigerator based on a Pulse Tube design

The cooled IR detectors are used in a wide range of applications. Most of the time, the cryocoolers are one of the components dimensioning the lifetime of the system. The cooler reliability is thus one of its most important parameters. This parameter has to increase to answer market needs. To do this, the data for identifying the weakest element determining cooler reliability has to be collected. Yet, data collection based on field are hardly usable due to lack of informations. A method for identifying the improvement in reliability has then to be set up which can be used even without field return. This paper will describe the method followed by Thales Cryogénie SAS to reach such a result. First, a database was built from extensive expertizes of RM2 failures occurring in accelerate ageing. Failure modes have then been identified and corrective actions achieved. Besides this, a hierarchical organization of the functions of the cooler has been done with regard to the potential increase of its efficiency. Specific changes have been introduced on the functions most likely to impact efficiency. The link between efficiency and reliability will be described in this paper. The work on the two axes – weak spots for cooler reliability and efficiency – permitted us to increase in a drastic way the MTTF of the RM2 cooler. Huge improvements in RM2 reliability are actually proven by both field return and reliability monitoring. These figures will be discussed in the paper.

The cooled IR detectors are used in a wide range of applications. Most of the time, the cryocoolers are one of the components dimensioning the lifetime of the system. The current market needs tend to reliability figures higher than 15,000hrs in “standard conditions”. Field returns are hardly useable mostly because of the uncertain environmental conditions of use, or the differences in user profiles. A previous paper explains how Thales Cryogenics has developed an approach based on accelerated ageing and statistical analysis [1]. The aim of the current paper is to compare results obtained on accelerated ageing on one side, and on the other side, specific field returns where the conditions of use are well known. The comparison between prediction and effective failure rate is discussed. Moreover, a specific focus is done on how some new applications of cryocoolers (continuous operation at a specific temperature) can increase the MTTF. Some assumptions are also exposed on how the failure modes, effects and criticality analysis evolves for continuous operation at a specific temperature and compared to experimental data.

In the infrared system, in order to decrease the background radiation and maximize the sensitivity, cooling down the aft-optic components' temperature is a better choice. Some two-phase devices such as grooved heat pipe or loop heat pipe (LHP) were used to link the cold sink and IR aft-optic components. This paper presented the testing results of cryogenic grooved heat pipes which were used in some infrared test systems in the temperature range of 160~210K with different heat load conditions. Also, some experimental results of cryogenic loop heat pipe were introduced in this paper.

This paper presents a heat transfer system, in which a radiant cooler, cryogenic heat pipes and flexible thermal links were developed for heat transfer, by which a cryogenic system was cooled down to 200K from room temperature. A scrolling mechanism was designed for the radiant cooler to anti-contamination and block sunlight in the initial orbit phase. The cryogenic heat pipe is a type of grooved heat pipe with the working fluid of ethane and working temperature ranging from 160K to 210K. Some experimental and simulation results of the radiant cooler, cryogenic heat pipes will be discussed in this paper.